My presentation – slides and notes – given for the Aotearoa Gender History Network on 5 April 2023
My hypothesis is that Annie Jane Allen Schnackenberg’s political life began in England as a young adult Wesleyan churchworker, but was honed by her life as a missionary teacher among Māori women leaders in the Waikato region of New Zealand (1861-1880) and the organisational structure adopted from the U.S. Woman’s Christian Temperance Union (1885-1903) to create political change.
Political history studies the organization and operation of power in large societies. An important aspect of political history is the study of ideology as a force for historical change. I posit she worked to make a substantial impact on her nation’s political and cultural norms. However, nearly all the direct expressions – the written records of her journals, her papers – which might have documented her political ideology were destroyed by her eldest daughter Katrina Astley in the 1930s. Katrina insisted: her journals and papers were “too personal.” My guess is that they were filled with Māori knowledge as modern and impactful – embarrassing to her children in that later time period when racist norms and assimilation-or-separatism had become the norm for New Zealand society.
Here’s what we know: Ruth Fry wrote a history of Wesleyan women missionaries in which she described “Annie Allen” as having quickly learnt Māori, was regularly commended in school inspection reports and “became popular among the local people.” During her life as a single woman then when she was married with children, Schnackenberg would have learned much of Māori women’s customs and political leadership in the Waikato during the New Zealand wars and land confiscation. Her decades spent in teaching undergirded her political work for curricular reform in the 1880s-90s.
Meanwhile The U.S. Woman’s Christian Temperance Union had, under the leadership of Frances Willard, created a massive political mobilisation of women, becoming the largest women’s organisation in the US by the 1880s. This political mobilization assured a process in which formerly passive or excluded individuals participate for an extended period of time in a collective action to create change. Willard was conscious of and wrote manuals for reform leaders to design arguments of political ideology that would persuade audiences to follow that leader, join the organisation, activate and maintain the excluded group’s volunteerism and attention to prescribed tasks.
The organising tour in 1885 by Mary Clement Leavitt was crucial in developing the political ideology of Annie Jane Allen Schnackenberg, a widow living with her parents and five children in Auckland at the time. Schnackenberg was a founding member of the Auckland branch organised by Leavitt in February 1885 and the chapter’s first superintendent for Scientific Temperance Instruction (STI). In February 1886 when Anne Ward organised the first national WCTU conference, Schnackenberg was appointed the found STI superintendent at the national level and began interacting with Mary Hanchett Hunt in the US, a former schoolteacher and the international STI superintendent. Schnackenberg was elected in 1892 as the fourth WCTUNZ president – preceded by Anne Ward, Emma Packe, and Catherine Fulton. She was president of WCTUNZ before and after the historic changes to the Electoral Act in 1893, while Kate Sheppard was national superintendent of WCTUNZ Franchise Dept. AJS represented the WCTUNZ as a founding member of the NCW in 1896 and participated in the debates, but she did not spend much time with this organisation. Instead, it was her work with Māori WCTU leaders that is key to understanding her political ideologies.
Q-As we talk about the suffrage mov’t are we still standing within a Whig interpretation of history (coined by Herbert Butterfield, 1931) – presenting the past as an inevitable progression towards ever greater liberty and enlightenment – rise of constitutional government, personal freedoms, scientific progress. A model of human progress in which (as Thomas Macaulay’s History of England from the accession of James the Second) confident, sometimes dogmatic, emphasis on a progressive model of British history, according to which the country threw off superstition, autocracy and confusion to create a balanced constitution and a forward-looking culture combined with freedom of belief and expression.
Schnackenberg’s beliefs were clearly based within English/Wesleyan liberal reform but also influenced by Māori women’s political leadership and the WCTU in which AJS is key to recruiting Māori women members. I present 3 components to AJS political ideology:
1) Māori women’s exercise of political authority by women as part of Māori tradition + dedication to educating children’s whole self, learning through stories of family history about moral codes and life habits for a good and useful life in a caring community – and the hapū. It is the women, therefore, who are the first conveyors of history and composers of songs that teach traditional values.
2) A belief in co-governance that includes Māori women as full partners in decision-making, this meant Schnackenberg showed that as a leader she was dependent on active discussions to lead to consensus, and she was not afraid of changing her mind in the process.
3) An insistence on women’s economic independence along with strong sense of volunteerism = leading music in church, Sunday School for children, prayer circles in neighbours’ homes, charity work for the poor (fundraising, organising food drives, clothing), serving on committees to manage morally focused organisations to better her community and nation, leading petition drives, participating in deputations to visit male leaders.
1861 – job as missionary teacher in Kawhia; popular with women leaders – perhaps she was friends with Hera Ngāpora Rangirereata Puku (Ngāti Mahuta), the principal wife of Tāmati (Thomas) Ngāpora – not only an Anglican lay preacher in Auckland (until 1863 when he refused to swear a loyalty oath and they lost all their lands and the St. James church he built in Mangere Bridge) but also a chief in his hapu and key adviser to the Māori King. Her daughter was Herakuao (Ngāpora) Manuwhiri Tawhiao b 1834 aka Hera who had married Pōtatau Te Wherowhero in 1850. In 1863 Rev Cort Schnackenberg’s first wife died and in 1864 Annie Jane “Jennie” Allen marries CHS, and has five children (her first two were born in Auckland at her parents’ home “Allendale” in Mt. Albert, but the 3rd-5th were born in Raglan). She was traveling between Kawhia (Te Ahuahu) where Erueti Ropata was principal and Hera Ektone as Matron; Aotea where Hemona (Samuel) Ngaropi was principal; and Raglan (Nihinihi) where the Schnackenbergs aligned with Wiremu Nēra (William Naylor) Te Awaitaia of Ngāti Māhanga – he was pro-Queen, whose daughter was Miriama-Toea (born 1834 making her near AJS’s age). Putoetoe was Te Awaitaia’s personal residence not far from the mission station where AJS lived. His Courthouse there was where he acted as a native magistrate. “Mahia te Pai” was the inscription on his flag that above his Courthouse. It was an exhortation to act with integrity and compassion – a motto to which the pacifist AJS would have adhered during these violent times.
The rise of Te Kīngitanga reflects the desire of many Māori for a leader able to unite the tribes, end land sales and make laws for Māori. Tawhiao, Ngati Mahuta chief, was elected second Maori King in 1860, following the death of King Potatau. Waikato War of 1863-54 pulls the Schnackenbergs back north to Raglan, and despite Rev’s repeated advice to keep Māori independence, 3 December 1863 Grey signs into law “New Zealand Settlements Act” – Land Confiscation Law
Land confiscation law passed and on the same day the Suppression of Rebellion Act was passed. In 1864 the colonial government asserts its responsibility for Māori affairs – and New Zealand wars are in full bloom through 1870s. Rev Schnackenberg dealing with declining funds for mission stations; AJ is dealing with rampaging soldiers determined to change the fortunes of Māori hold on farmlands, international trading and fishing.
visit by the Māori King Tāwhiao and his retinue in Raglan for a morning service and breakfast at the mission station in June 1878. He had just come from a meeting at Te Kopua in May with Governor George Grey in which the Governor had offered to return unconfiscated lands of the Waikato in return for peace – and if Tāwhiao would take a loyalty oath acknowledging the Queen of England as his sovereign. This was the same condition put forward by Grey at the start of the invasion of the Waikato and must have rankled the powerful Māori leaders. Tāwhiao had converted in 1875 to his own version of the Pai Mārire religion which was called Tariao (morning star). The King’s chaplain was Maaka Rawhiti who was from Kawhia and in his youth had been put forward as a candidate for ordination as a Wesleyan minister. Rev. Schnackenberg remembered that he had not supported Maaka’s candidacy, so the generally pleasant tone of the visit was likely due to Maaka’s connection with Annie Jane from when they were living at the Kawhia mission station in the 1860s. As the family remembered the visit many years later, the King had left behind his velvet smoking cap, decorated with huia feathers and a gold tassel. Edward Schnackenberg told the story to his sister Rina that he remembered (he would have been nine years old) their mother picked up the cap from the sofa where Tāwhiao had left it and followed after him, saying: “E pa kau mahue e koe karauna.” Without her papers, we cannot know whether she meant this reference to his “crown (karauna)” in a serious tone or satirical. Her children remember this incident as being perceived as friendly and taken in a positive light. Nevertheless, Annie Jane’s professed pacificism later in life might have been part of her good relationship with this Māori king who regularly professed his desire to end the bloodshed and military tactics to save their lands. Whatever the reason, King Tāwhiao chose to visit the Schnackenberg family during this difficult time, even though he had sworn he would never again enter a Pākehā house.
Rev’s death in 1880 => AJS brings all her children back to Mt Albert with ailing mother who dies soon thereafter – AJS began teaching Sunday School there and served on the managing committee for Mt Albert Total Abstinence Society = political petitions and canvassing, church fundraising (by 1884 5 of the 7 districts in Auckland have no liquor licenses).
Context re voting and temperance in NZ: Women’s municipal suffrage was made compulsory in 1875 in all the provinces. 1877 the Education Act granted women the right to vote for and stand for office in school committees. In 1878, 1879 and 1887 bills or amendments to enfranchise women (or at least female ratepayers) at the national level had only been narrowly defeated. 1881 was The Licensing Act – also known as the Local Option Act – of 1881 (amended in 1882) established local licensing committees elected annually by ratepayers (replacing the provincial govt laws) – imposed an age limit of 16 to buy liquor to drink in a bar (though children could still buy liquor to take away). Sales were banned (in most circumstances, on Sundays, Christmas Day and Good Friday) as well as estab penalties for public houses serving inebriated persons, permitting ‘riotous conduct’ and allowing prostitution. 1884 King’s Country goes dry – though Māori Temperance songs published in 1873, evidence not until 1887 Māori Temperance groups: eg Paora Rapitha of Waipawa (Minutes 1887, p12).
Leavitt as the WCTU’s first World Missionary arrives in Auckland Jan 1885 => Auckland WCTU organised petition to end exploitation of barmaids (age of consent is 12; work age is 14) i.e., protection of young girls including Māori – see Susan Upton (Suzanne Marilley’s thesis that the WCTU promotes “politics of fear”, security vs individual rights)
1886 WCTU resolves to petition government to make STI compulsory – curric reform as politics; AJS holds public meetings with Sir William Fox, pres of NZ Temperance Alliance & Sir Robert Stout, Premier.
1887 Anne Ward, 1st president of WCTU NZ, comes to Auckland to start a free kindergarten – Auckland Jubilee Kindergarten on High Street – and AJS gathered supporters eg Sarah Fox and Isabella Dilworthy then becomes president. Expands to offering beds for working women’s babies as well. AJS uses consensus to “Do Everything”: 3 petitions in 1888: 1) Repeal of Contagious Diseases Acts (orig 1869 & Auck lock hospital ended 1886) but women need protection from aggressive and abusive male police and doctors. 2) Law to prohibit selling alcohol to children under 16. 3) Substitute “person” for “male” in Electoral Bill.
1890 first “one man one vote” election – ending plural voting based on property ownership. AJS 1890 works with other temperance orgs to petition Crown rep to support Rarotonga’s right to refuse trade in alcohol; VP of YWCA = support for immigrant women, housing, inexp food, training & support for entrepreneurs. AJS invited Harriet Morison, Tailoresses Fedtn council to form union in Auckland; helped found Auckland Women Franchise League and moved Amey Daldy to be president. 1892 WCTU NZ sent banner to Chicago Exhib using Maori and English inscription – AJS elected national pres with statement that the franchise lay at the very foundation for all their work.
…We have again been met by disappointment in our efforts to obtain the suffrage. We hope it is only delayed for a time, so as to give the women of New Zealand a fuller and more complete enfranchisement. We cannot estimate too highly or make too much of womanhood suffrage as a foundation of our work, and we should endeavor to influence our sisters to make a good use of their rights as citizens. … let us be “up and doing,” let us do all in our power to stem the tide of iniquity, and to help those who most need our help: to raise the fallen, and to try to save those who are enslaved, or who are in danger from drink, and encourage them to do what is right for themselves and their families. Let our motto be upward and our aims ever onward to still higher attainment, and greater victories for God, and Home, and Humanity.
1893 Universal suffrage is introduced for women aged over 21 (including Māori women). New Zealand becomes the first self-governing country to grant the right to vote to all adult women.
1893 Meri Mangahkahia of Te Rarawa proposed women to speak in Maori Parliament; formation of Nga Komiti Wahine to discuss land, health and other political issues; Niniwa I te Rangi of Wairarapa and Meri Mangakahia started a column in Te Tiupiri to encourage Maori women to correspond with one another – overlapping with membership in WCTU
That year AJS called for a new department to be created that would focus on peace and arbitration – reacting to the imperial wars in Africa, Australia, the Middle East, the South-east and Indonesia.
It was during Annie Jane’s presidency that the work to ally with and include Māori leaders – not just proselytise or minister as missionaries – officially began. AJS in 1896 printed her greetings in te reo in the White Ribbon as well as a letter to Māori “sisters”. 1896 – From the Dunedin WCTU NZ convention, AJS travelled to Christchurch for the inaugural Council of Women. Kate Sheppard (who had been talking with Eva McLaren of the International Council of Women while she was in England earlier that year) was elected president, and Annie Jane was elected one of the four vice-presidents. Annie Jane was also a part of the sub-committee to consider the constitution and by-laws of the National Council based on the Intl Council founded by Susan B. Anthony, Frances Willard and others in 1888. raise age of consent to 18, support for the right of co-guardianship of one’s own children, divorce reform, abolishment of capital punishment, but clashed with Marianne Trasker on issue of secular education & Asian exclusion bill. The next year she and Lady Anna Stout – both strong advocates of pragmatism, self-development and liberal philosophy of individual freedom – did not attend the 2nd NCW NZ meeting.
By the 12th WCTU Convention in 1897, 1000 members inc Māori; March 1897 – apology for confusion over not inviting Rotorua union (200 Māori women) “I am sure all who were there would have been very glad to have heard all you could tell of the growth of temperance work among your people.” didn’t have Hewitt’s address; ltr to AJS from J. Foley re Rotorua chapter activities Apr 97 – By 1897 there were nine branches of the WCTU in the Rotorua district alone. Hera Stirling (later Munro) of Ngāi Tahu, an officer in the Salvation Army, started branches in the South Island as well as in the lower North Island, and in 1911 she was central to the organisation of a Māori WCTU NZ convention at Pakipaki, near Hastings.
Auckland WTCU News 1898 inc “a Union has also been formed at Orakei, a Māori village a few miles from Auckland, by Mrs. Schnackenberg. Six Māoris signed the pledge. As they have promised not only to abstain from alcohol, but also to discontinue the use of tobacco and the practice of tatooing, their loyalty will be tested.” also Evangelistic Superintendent “assisted by a gifted Māori sister, Mere Poruamata, recently conducted a successful service in the Mission Hall.” 1898 Hewitt’s resignation, appointment of AJS by the Convention in her stead ; taking charge of Dept of Māori Missions – visit to Rotorua – Ohinemutu, Whakarewarewa (and Sophia), Mary Baker and Te Ngae (tho Land Court = few attendees). By 1899 WCTU NZ membership: European 1255; Māori 1368
Her short protest in 1899 during a NCW debate about how Auckland pubs stay open on Sundays is picked up and resulted in a whole page of cartoons in punishment for her speaking out (vs. Fox saying exact same things in 1884) = 100 pound challenge by Auckland publicans placed in ads for a week. She does not respond publicly and it quieted down, but this was a rare occurrence for her.
1900: AJS is President + Supt Māori Work , Conv report presented by “Mrs. J. Foley, licensed Maori interpreter,” Resolution prohibiting sale of tobacco and cigarettes to children.
1901: Schnack wants to step down: Vice President at large (Lily Atkinson is president), Supt of Māori Work – several resolutions against alcohol in King Country; to start fundraising for school in Auckland for Māori girls in memory of Queen; 1 May 1901 AJS sends to White Ribbon a ty note from Grafton Road, Auckland for engraved “pretty plated hot water jug” also sends in Māori Mission Fund balance Sheet (inc visiting Rotorua, Waikato, sending photos of Napier Convention to Māori)
1902 -AJS was VP at large, still listed as living at Grafton Road, Auckland; also is supt Māori Work – WCTU balance sheet for year ending March 6, 1902 inc 10 shillings to AJS for Māori Work + traveling expenses to Wellington Convention Mar 20th as president; 1903 at 18th convention, AJS voted in again as VP and Māori Work dept but no evidence of activity; 1904 convention, AJS listed as VP but Rachel Don was acting VP – by then AJS was bedridden at her eldest daughter’s house and she died in 1905.
AJS created a bicultural women’s movement during one of the most important internationally renowned moments in political history.
1885 - Travels in New Zealand 